Oil Omega: Difference between revisions

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[[Category:Health]]
[[Category:Health]]
= TL;DR: =
* EVOO health benefit is sufficiently probable to make it worth using.
* Regular olive oil is harder to get excited about (lacking the antioxidants in EVOO).
* The canola oil industry group published a sketchy "study".
* Some of the "problems" with canola oil are flawed; either from older data or from industrial rapeseed oil.
= The Question =
Which oil is healthiest? Is canola oil bad? Is olive oil good? What other options are good?
Which oil is healthiest? Is canola oil bad? Is olive oil good? What other options are good?


Line 7: Line 14:
* Omega Ratio (3, 6, 9)
* Omega Ratio (3, 6, 9)
** Omega 3 is good, Omega 6 is bad, Omega 9 is good.
** Omega 3 is good, Omega 6 is bad, Omega 9 is good.
** https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/21/3/741
** https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/fat/art-20045550
** https://universityhealthnews.com/daily/nutrition/omega-6-vs-omega-3-fatty-acids/
* GMO
* GMO
** Genetic modification of crops poses various risks, from altering agriculture processes to nutrient and toxin content in the final product.
** Genetic modification of crops poses various risks, from altering agriculture processes to nutrient and toxin content in the final product.
* Erucic Acid
** May be linked to heart disease.
* Trans Fats
** Early canola oil had higher trans fat content.
* Antioxidants
** EVOO has loads of antioxidants.
= Notes =
= Notes =
== Oils Study ==
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10180740/
VOO scores 100, Canola scores 68, but the study is flawed.
Section 2.3 shows a suspicious scoring system, in which a threshold is used to set a score to maximum positive or maximum negative. It does not identify the score values for oleic acid, which has a threshold very close to the values for canola (just below) and VOO (just above). Figure 1, the only figure showing the calculation of scores, does not show the calculation for canola oil.
* Canola TFA should be 0.4 (it was reduced between 2008 and 2013): https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canola_oil#Nutrition_and_health https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/public-health-nutrition/article/transfatty-acids-in-cooking-oils-in-bogota-colombia-changes-in-the-food-supply-from-2008-to-2013/149F8B8E6F17BF307D44A2AEC773C553
* Canola and VOO have nearly the same 18:1 oleic acid, with VOO barely over and canola barely under, that should not result in a 6 point swing.
{| class="wikitable"
|
|SFA
|'18:1 oleic (9)
|'18:2 lino (6)
|'18:3 alino-3
|EPA+DHA
|TFA
|Tocopherol
|Phytosterol
|
|
|-
|Canola
|10.9
|65.7
|22.6
|22.6
|0
|2
|155.5
|729
|
|
|-
|VOO
|16.6
|70.3
|12.3
|0.6
|0
|0.1
|20.5
|178
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Threshold
|<9.0
|>70.0
|1.6-6.1
|0.5-2.2
|0.11-0.90
|<0.9
|3.4-6.7
|0.7-1.4
|
|
|-
|
|10
|
|6
|0.5
|0.11
|1
|
|
|
|
|-
|Canola
| -3
|
|3
|2
| -3
| -5
|
|
| -6
|
|-
|VOO
| -3
|
|3
|2
| -3
|0
|
|
| -1
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Canola
| -3
|
|3
|2
| -3
| -5
|3
|3
|0
|1
|-
|VOO
| -3
|3
|3
|2
| -3
|0
|3
|3
|8
|8
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Canola
| -3
|3
|3
|2
| -3
|0
|3
|3
|8
|
|-
|VOO
| -3
|3
|3
|2
| -3
|0
|3
|3
|8
|
|}
== Olive Oil ==
== Olive Oil ==
"The reason extra virgin olive oil is deemed superior [to canola oil] is because of the way it is processed, its [https://www.verywellhealth.com/polyphenols-5217399 high concentration of polyphenols], and how its antioxidants withstand heat during cooking. Regular consumption of olive oil is associated with a reduced risk of early death, cardiovascular disease, cognitive decline, certain types of cancer, and diabetes." - https://www.verywellhealth.com/canola-oil-8407170
"The reason extra virgin olive oil is deemed superior [to canola oil] is because of the way it is processed, its [https://www.verywellhealth.com/polyphenols-5217399 high concentration of polyphenols], and how its antioxidants withstand heat during cooking. Regular consumption of olive oil is associated with a reduced risk of early death, cardiovascular disease, cognitive decline, certain types of cancer, and diabetes." - https://www.verywellhealth.com/canola-oil-8407170


See Also: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10180740/
"regular olive oil has a low polyphenol count. Meanwhile, extra virgin olive oil is packed with polyphenols (1, 2, 9). These include oleuropein, hydroxytyrosol, and oleocanthal, which are linked to a lower risk of heart disease and reduced inflammation (10)." - https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/canola-vs-olive-oil
 
== Canola Oil ==
=== Smoke Point ===
"At 460℉ (238℃), canola oil has a higher smoke point than either regular or extra virgin olive oil — 410℉ (210℃) and 383℉ (195℃), respectively (11, 12)." - https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/canola-vs-olive-oil
=== Trans Fat ===
"Compared with oils analysed in 2008( Reference Baylin, Mora-Plazas and Cobos-de Rangel 9 ), the 2013 data showed consistent reductions in SFA and TFA, and increases in n-3 fatty acids, for all oils (Table 2). In particular, reductions in TFA were significant for 18:1 and 18:2 in mixed oils and for 18:2 in sunflower oil. In terms of percentage reduction from 2008 to 2013 in 18:1 and 18:2 TFA, canola oil had 89 % and 65 % reduction, mixed oils had 44 % and 48 % reduction, and sunflower had 25 % and 51 % reduction, respectively." - https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/public-health-nutrition/article/transfatty-acids-in-cooking-oils-in-bogota-colombia-changes-in-the-food-supply-from-2008-to-2013/149F8B8E6F17BF307D44A2AEC773C553
=== Erucic Acid ===
"Studies done on laboratory animals in the early 1970s[6] show that erucic acid appears to have toxic effects on the heart at high enough doses. However, more recent research has cast doubt on the relevance of rat studies to the human health of erucic acid. Rats are unusual in their inability to process erucic acid, and the symptoms in rats caused by a diet with high levels of erucic acid have not been observed in pigs, primates, or any other animals." - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erucic_acid
 
"Food-grade rapeseed oil (also known as canola oil, rapeseed 00 oil, low erucic acid rapeseed oil, LEAR oil, and rapeseed canola-equivalent oil) is regulated to a maximum of 2% erucic acid by weight in the US[10] and 2% in the EU[12] (was 5%[11] before 2019-11-19), with special regulations for infant food. Canola was bred from rapeseed cultivars of B. napus and B. rapa by Dr. Baldur Stefansson at the University of Manitoba, Canada in addition to being cultivated by ancient Chinese, Indian, and Japanese cultures. Canola oil is derived from a variety of rapeseed that is low in erucic acid, as opposed to colza oil." - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erucic_acid
== More Studies ==
https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/canola-vs-olive-oil
<blockquote>
Nutritionally, olive oil — especially extra virgin — is healthier than canola.
 
People who regularly use olive oil have reduced heart disease risk factors, improved blood sugar levels, and a lower risk of death (17, 18, 19).
 
For example, an analysis of 33 studies revealed that people with the highest olive oil intake had a 16% lower risk of type 2 diabetes than those with the lowest intake (18).
 
Additionally, greater olive oil consumption is linked to a lower risk of stroke and a reduction in heart disease risk factors, including LDL (bad) cholesterol and triglyceride levels (17).
 
Olive oil’s benefits can be attributed to its antioxidants and other plant compounds, which are especially abundant in extra virgin varieties (9).
 
On the other hand, canola oil is highly refined, which drastically reduces its content of nutrients like essential fatty acids and antioxidants (1, 2).
 
While canola is often promoted as a heart-healthy fat, current research is conflicting. Though some studies suggest that it’s beneficial, others indicate the opposite (1, 20).
 
One study in 2,071 overweight or obese adults noted that those who often used canola oil had a higher risk of developing metabolic syndrome than those who rarely or never used it (20).
 
Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of conditions characterized by excess belly fat and high triglyceride, cholesterol, blood pressure, and fasting blood sugar levels, which collectively raise your risk of heart disease (21).
 
Keep in mind that many studies linking canola oil to heart-health benefits have been funded by the canola industry, potentially raising conflicts of interest. Overall, more research is needed on canola and heart health (1, 22, 23, 24, 25).
 
In addition, rodent studies associate this oil with increased inflammation, a negative impact on memory, and lower blood levels of antioxidants (26, 27).
 
Meanwhile, multiple studies show that extra virgin olive oil has anti-inflammatory properties and heart-health benefits (28, 29, 30).
 
As far as your health is concerned, more evidence supports the benefits of olive oil over canola.
</blockquote>
 
=== Selected Extracts ===
* https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5691704/
** "Clinical trials conducted in individuals at risk for the development of cardiovascular diseases show positive effects of daily intake of different amounts of olive oil on inflammatory markers."
** "the effects of olive oil and/or its phenolic compounds specifically on individuals with established CAD are still scarce. In this sense, more clinical trials, preferably long-term studies, are necessary to evaluate and confirm the beneficial effects of the phenolic compounds present in the olive oil on the inflammatory process, both in the prevention and treatment of CAD."
* https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6116055/
** "In this cross-sectional study of young Australian adults, a higher cMetSyn score (greater probability of cardiovascular disease) was associated with more frequent consumption of low-fat oily dressings among participants who were healthy weight and frequent use of [either sunflower or] canola oil for cooking among those who were overweight or obese. Trimming fat from meat, cooking with olive oil and consumption of low-fat dairy products was not associated with metabolic risk."
** Note: The study did not distinguish between sunflower and canola oil. Canola oil is more popular than sunflower oil in Australia.
* https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3746113/
** Funded by the Canola Oil Council
** Take a guess what their conclusion was...
* https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5436092/
** "The present systematic review and meta-analysis provides evidence of favorable effects of olive oil on T2D (Type 2 Diabetes) risk and parameters of glycemic control. In light of other benefits, especially reported for extra virgin olive oil as an integral part of a Mediterranean diet, this vegetable oil represents a suitable component of a balanced diet."
* https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4198773/
** "The results of the present meta-analysis indicate an overall risk reduction of all-cause mortality (11%), cardiovascular mortality (12%), cardiovascular events (9%), and stroke (17%) when comparing the top vs. bottom thirds of a combination of MUFA, olive oil, oleic acid, and MUFA:SFA ratio. Monounsaturated fat of mixed animal and vegetable sources per se did not yield any significant effects on these outcome parameters. Subgroup analysis indicated that only olive oil (the primary monounsaturated fat source in south European countries) is was associated with a significant risk reduction for several outcomes. These data provide evidence that the source and origin of MUFA within a specific diet should be taken into account in order to evaluate the potential benefits of this type of fatty acids. Further studies are required evaluating specific food sources of MUFA and risk of all-cause mortality and CVD events."


== Sources ==
== Sources ==
Line 19: Line 269:
* https://www.verywellhealth.com/canola-oil-8407170
* https://www.verywellhealth.com/canola-oil-8407170
* https://www.goodhousekeeping.com/health/diet-nutrition/g32108013/healthiest-cooking-oils/
* https://www.goodhousekeeping.com/health/diet-nutrition/g32108013/healthiest-cooking-oils/
*  
* https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10180740/
 
= Tabular Data =
= Tabular Data =


Latest revision as of 16:32, 11 June 2024

TL;DR:

  • EVOO health benefit is sufficiently probable to make it worth using.
  • Regular olive oil is harder to get excited about (lacking the antioxidants in EVOO).
  • The canola oil industry group published a sketchy "study".
  • Some of the "problems" with canola oil are flawed; either from older data or from industrial rapeseed oil.

The Question

Which oil is healthiest? Is canola oil bad? Is olive oil good? What other options are good?

Factors:

Notes

Oils Study

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10180740/

VOO scores 100, Canola scores 68, but the study is flawed.

Section 2.3 shows a suspicious scoring system, in which a threshold is used to set a score to maximum positive or maximum negative. It does not identify the score values for oleic acid, which has a threshold very close to the values for canola (just below) and VOO (just above). Figure 1, the only figure showing the calculation of scores, does not show the calculation for canola oil.

SFA '18:1 oleic (9) '18:2 lino (6) '18:3 alino-3 EPA+DHA TFA Tocopherol Phytosterol
Canola 10.9 65.7 22.6 22.6 0 2 155.5 729
VOO 16.6 70.3 12.3 0.6 0 0.1 20.5 178
Threshold <9.0 >70.0 1.6-6.1 0.5-2.2 0.11-0.90 <0.9 3.4-6.7 0.7-1.4
10 6 0.5 0.11 1
Canola -3 3 2 -3 -5 -6
VOO -3 3 2 -3 0 -1
Canola -3 3 2 -3 -5 3 3 0 1
VOO -3 3 3 2 -3 0 3 3 8 8
Canola -3 3 3 2 -3 0 3 3 8
VOO -3 3 3 2 -3 0 3 3 8

Olive Oil

"The reason extra virgin olive oil is deemed superior [to canola oil] is because of the way it is processed, its high concentration of polyphenols, and how its antioxidants withstand heat during cooking. Regular consumption of olive oil is associated with a reduced risk of early death, cardiovascular disease, cognitive decline, certain types of cancer, and diabetes." - https://www.verywellhealth.com/canola-oil-8407170

"regular olive oil has a low polyphenol count. Meanwhile, extra virgin olive oil is packed with polyphenols (1, 2, 9). These include oleuropein, hydroxytyrosol, and oleocanthal, which are linked to a lower risk of heart disease and reduced inflammation (10)." - https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/canola-vs-olive-oil

Canola Oil

Smoke Point

"At 460℉ (238℃), canola oil has a higher smoke point than either regular or extra virgin olive oil — 410℉ (210℃) and 383℉ (195℃), respectively (11, 12)." - https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/canola-vs-olive-oil

Trans Fat

"Compared with oils analysed in 2008( Reference Baylin, Mora-Plazas and Cobos-de Rangel 9 ), the 2013 data showed consistent reductions in SFA and TFA, and increases in n-3 fatty acids, for all oils (Table 2). In particular, reductions in TFA were significant for 18:1 and 18:2 in mixed oils and for 18:2 in sunflower oil. In terms of percentage reduction from 2008 to 2013 in 18:1 and 18:2 TFA, canola oil had 89 % and 65 % reduction, mixed oils had 44 % and 48 % reduction, and sunflower had 25 % and 51 % reduction, respectively." - https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/public-health-nutrition/article/transfatty-acids-in-cooking-oils-in-bogota-colombia-changes-in-the-food-supply-from-2008-to-2013/149F8B8E6F17BF307D44A2AEC773C553

Erucic Acid

"Studies done on laboratory animals in the early 1970s[6] show that erucic acid appears to have toxic effects on the heart at high enough doses. However, more recent research has cast doubt on the relevance of rat studies to the human health of erucic acid. Rats are unusual in their inability to process erucic acid, and the symptoms in rats caused by a diet with high levels of erucic acid have not been observed in pigs, primates, or any other animals." - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erucic_acid

"Food-grade rapeseed oil (also known as canola oil, rapeseed 00 oil, low erucic acid rapeseed oil, LEAR oil, and rapeseed canola-equivalent oil) is regulated to a maximum of 2% erucic acid by weight in the US[10] and 2% in the EU[12] (was 5%[11] before 2019-11-19), with special regulations for infant food. Canola was bred from rapeseed cultivars of B. napus and B. rapa by Dr. Baldur Stefansson at the University of Manitoba, Canada in addition to being cultivated by ancient Chinese, Indian, and Japanese cultures. Canola oil is derived from a variety of rapeseed that is low in erucic acid, as opposed to colza oil." - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erucic_acid

More Studies

https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/canola-vs-olive-oil

Nutritionally, olive oil — especially extra virgin — is healthier than canola.

People who regularly use olive oil have reduced heart disease risk factors, improved blood sugar levels, and a lower risk of death (17, 18, 19).

For example, an analysis of 33 studies revealed that people with the highest olive oil intake had a 16% lower risk of type 2 diabetes than those with the lowest intake (18).

Additionally, greater olive oil consumption is linked to a lower risk of stroke and a reduction in heart disease risk factors, including LDL (bad) cholesterol and triglyceride levels (17).

Olive oil’s benefits can be attributed to its antioxidants and other plant compounds, which are especially abundant in extra virgin varieties (9).

On the other hand, canola oil is highly refined, which drastically reduces its content of nutrients like essential fatty acids and antioxidants (1, 2).

While canola is often promoted as a heart-healthy fat, current research is conflicting. Though some studies suggest that it’s beneficial, others indicate the opposite (1, 20).

One study in 2,071 overweight or obese adults noted that those who often used canola oil had a higher risk of developing metabolic syndrome than those who rarely or never used it (20).

Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of conditions characterized by excess belly fat and high triglyceride, cholesterol, blood pressure, and fasting blood sugar levels, which collectively raise your risk of heart disease (21).

Keep in mind that many studies linking canola oil to heart-health benefits have been funded by the canola industry, potentially raising conflicts of interest. Overall, more research is needed on canola and heart health (1, 22, 23, 24, 25).

In addition, rodent studies associate this oil with increased inflammation, a negative impact on memory, and lower blood levels of antioxidants (26, 27).

Meanwhile, multiple studies show that extra virgin olive oil has anti-inflammatory properties and heart-health benefits (28, 29, 30).

As far as your health is concerned, more evidence supports the benefits of olive oil over canola.

Selected Extracts

  • https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5691704/
    • "Clinical trials conducted in individuals at risk for the development of cardiovascular diseases show positive effects of daily intake of different amounts of olive oil on inflammatory markers."
    • "the effects of olive oil and/or its phenolic compounds specifically on individuals with established CAD are still scarce. In this sense, more clinical trials, preferably long-term studies, are necessary to evaluate and confirm the beneficial effects of the phenolic compounds present in the olive oil on the inflammatory process, both in the prevention and treatment of CAD."
  • https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6116055/
    • "In this cross-sectional study of young Australian adults, a higher cMetSyn score (greater probability of cardiovascular disease) was associated with more frequent consumption of low-fat oily dressings among participants who were healthy weight and frequent use of [either sunflower or] canola oil for cooking among those who were overweight or obese. Trimming fat from meat, cooking with olive oil and consumption of low-fat dairy products was not associated with metabolic risk."
    • Note: The study did not distinguish between sunflower and canola oil. Canola oil is more popular than sunflower oil in Australia.
  • https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3746113/
    • Funded by the Canola Oil Council
    • Take a guess what their conclusion was...
  • https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5436092/
    • "The present systematic review and meta-analysis provides evidence of favorable effects of olive oil on T2D (Type 2 Diabetes) risk and parameters of glycemic control. In light of other benefits, especially reported for extra virgin olive oil as an integral part of a Mediterranean diet, this vegetable oil represents a suitable component of a balanced diet."
  • https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4198773/
    • "The results of the present meta-analysis indicate an overall risk reduction of all-cause mortality (11%), cardiovascular mortality (12%), cardiovascular events (9%), and stroke (17%) when comparing the top vs. bottom thirds of a combination of MUFA, olive oil, oleic acid, and MUFA:SFA ratio. Monounsaturated fat of mixed animal and vegetable sources per se did not yield any significant effects on these outcome parameters. Subgroup analysis indicated that only olive oil (the primary monounsaturated fat source in south European countries) is was associated with a significant risk reduction for several outcomes. These data provide evidence that the source and origin of MUFA within a specific diet should be taken into account in order to evaluate the potential benefits of this type of fatty acids. Further studies are required evaluating specific food sources of MUFA and risk of all-cause mortality and CVD events."

Sources

Tabular Data

Cooking Oils / Fats Smoke Point °C Smoke Point °F Omega-6: Omega-3 Ratio

(plus other relevant fat information)

Flaxseed oil 107°C 225°F 1:4
Safflower oil 107°C 225°F 133:1
Sunflower oil 107°C 225°F 40:1
Corn oil 160°C 320°F 83:1
High-oleic sunflower oil 160°C 320°F 40:1, 84% monosaturated
Olive Oil: Extra virgin 160°C 320°F 9:1, Low in Saturated fat, 73% monounsaturated, high in Omega 9, high in polyphenols
Semirefined safflower oil 160°C 320°F 133:1, (75% Omega 9)
Soy oil 160°C 320°F 8:1 (most are GMO)
Walnut oil 160°C 320°F 5:1
Hemp seed oil 165°C 330°F 3:1
Butter 177°C 350°F Very little Omegas, mostly saturated fat
Canola oil 177°C 350°F 2:1, [ (56% Omega 9), 80% Canola is GMO.]
Coconut oil 177°C 350°F 86% saturated fat, lauric acid. Not considered a healthy choice. Claimed to have MCTs that are healthier for you, but the science does not support this
Sesame oil 177°C 350°F 138:1
Semirefined soy oil 177°C 350°F 8:1
Vegetable shortening 182°C 360°F mostly unhealthy saturated, Trans Fat
Lard 182°C 370°F 11:1 high in saturated fat
Macadamia nut oil 199°C 390°F 1:1, 80% monounsaturated, (83% Omega-9)
Canola oil (Expeller Pressed) 200°C 400°F 2:1, 62% monounsaturated, 32% polyunsaturated
Canola oil (refined) 204°C 400°F 3:1, 80% of Canola in US is GMO.
Semirefined walnut oil 204°C 400°F 5:1
Olive Oil: High quality (low acidity) extra virgin 207°C 405°F 9:1, 74% monosaturated (71.3% Omega 9), high in polyphenols
Sesame oil 210°C 410°F 42:1
Cottonseed oil 216°C 420°F 54:1
Grapeseed oil 216°C 420°F 676:1, (12% saturated, 17% monounsaturated)
Olive oil: Virgin 216°C 420°F 13:1, 74% monosaturated (71.3% Omega 9), high in polyphenols
Almond oil 216°C 420°F Omega-6 only
Hazelnut oil 221°C 430°F 75% monosaturated (no Omega 3, 78% Omega 9)
Peanut oil 227°C 440°F 32:1
Sunflower oil 227°C 440°F 40:1
Refined corn oil 232°C 450°F 83:1
Palm oil 232°C 450°F 46:1, mostly saturated and monosaturated
Palm kernel oil 232°C 450°F 82% saturated (No Omega 3)
Refined high-oleic sunflower oil 232°C 450°F 39:1, 84% monosaturated
Refined peanut oil 232°C 450°F 32:1
Semirefined sesame oil 232°C 450°F 138:1
Refined soy oil 232°C 450°F 8:1 (most are GMO)
Semirefined sunflower oil 232°C 450°F 40:1
Olive pomace oil 238°C 460°F 74% monosaturated, high in Omega 9
Olive Oil: Extra light 242°C 468°F 9:1, 74% monosaturated, high in Omega 9, high in polyphenols
Rice Bran Oil 254°C 490°F 21:1, Good source of vitamin E & antioxidants
Refined Safflower oil 266°C 510°F 133:1 (74% Omega 9)
Avocado oil 271°C 520°F 12:1, 70% monosaturated, (68% Omega-9 fatty acids)

High in vitamin E.

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